Longinus’ Sublimity in Gothic Fiction

According to Princeton’s Encyclopedia, “sublimity” literally translates to “(on) high, lofty, elevated” or “the echo of greatness of spirit” 5. Essentially, it is the moral and imaginative power of the writer that pervades their work2. The first writer associated with sublimity was Casius Longinus, a rhetorician of unknown origins from 50 A.D5. According to Longinus, sublimity’s most distinguished quality is a “certain quality of feeling.” To support his argument, he listed the following examples: “Father Zeus, kill us if thou wilt, but kill us in the light” and “Let there be light.” Essentially, Longinus believes that an author’s masterful use of language could achieve sublimity. He provides five potential sources of sublimity: “the power of forming great conceptions, vehement and inspired passion, certain figures of thought and speech, noble diction, and elevation” 3. “The power of forming great conceptions” reveals the author’s ability to think creatively and ambitiously. “Vehement and inspired passion” describes a strong emotional state that comes from fervor and intense enthusiasm. “Certain figures of thought and speech” discusses the author’s ability to effectively use rhetorical devices to achieve sublimity and share the intensity of their emotions. “Noble diction” refers to the author’s use of grandeur and elevated language. It also involves the skillful arrangement of words and phrases to convey ideas with grace and dignity. Finally, “elevation” represents the ability of a text to go above the ordinary and inspire awe and admiration in an audience. Longinus’ sublimity–and his overall use of the rhetoric– wasn’t used to convince an audience of a particular argument, but rather to take them beyond their usual state of mind. 

Longinus’ arguments on sublimity influenced many later works and genres, especially Gothic fiction. During the European Romanticism period of the 1790s, authors used concepts of the sublimity and added darker elements to it. Instead of simply focusing on how the rhetoric caused sublimity, Gothic authors used sublimity to invoke their audience’s emotions1. Sublimity is essential for Gothic literature because it recaptures the Gothic work the same emotional intensities and narrative freedoms Longinus advocated for. Because of these qualities, it allows Gothic fiction to attain another key element: terror. According to philosopher Edmund Burke, “terror is in all cases whatsoever . . . either more openly or latently the ruling principle of the sublime” 6. Several traits of Gothic literature include the following: terror, vast cataracts, medieval buildings, ruins, raging storms, lofty towers, dark nights, ghosts and goblins, serpents, madmen, mountains, precipices, dazzling light, etc 6. Longinus’ idea of sublimity can be applied to many Gothic works, such as Matthew Lewis’ The Monk, Percy Shelley’s Zastrozzi, and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. These works fulfill a variety of Longinus criteria for sublimity, such as “certain figures of thought and speech” and “vehement and inspired passion.” On the other hand, Longinus’ argument on sublimity falls short in many accounts. In addition, Longinus’ criteria for sublimity can intersect with one another; there aren’t clear distinctions between different categories. Because of this, many readers could interpret his criteria in various ways and find different examples of sublimity. Finally, Longinus’ idea didn’t explicate on the specific emotions an audience should experience after reading the chosen text. 

Matthew Gregory Lewis’ The Monk is a Gothic work that utilizes romance to exploit horror and violence, fulfilling several criteria for achieving sublimity. The novel follows the story of a monk named Ambrosio, who led a life of depravity after being tricked by Matilda–a demon in disguise. When Ambrosio attempted to rape the maiden Antonia, he suffocated her mother Elvira with a pillow when she saw him. in the process. “The Monk . . . witnessed without mercy the convulsive trembling of her limbs beneath him, and sustained with inhuman firmness the spectacle of her agonies, when soul and body were on the point of separation” 4. Lewis achieves sublimity by writing Elvira’s death in great detail, fulfilling the criterion “certain figures of thought and speech.” Lewis used phrases such as “convulsive trembling”, “inhuman firmness,” and “ . . . soul and body were on the point of separation” to highlight the monstrous imagery of the contortion of the human body (i.e. the grotesque). The immense detail also forces the audience to imagine the scene themselves, and they usually picture themselves in the same position. This reflex would naturally cause the audience discomfort, reminding them of the promise of death. This quality makes The Monk incredibly unique. Rather than choosing to emphasize Gothic architecture, Lewis nurtures the element of terror within the characters themselves through their actions. 

When Ambrosio committed Elvira’s murder, he proclaimed, “The door was open: We distinguished the shrieks of the dying and imprecations of the Murderers! What I felt at that moment language is unable to describe!” 4. Ambrosio’s zealous declaration is consistent with Longinus’ idea of sublimity– “a certain quality of feeling”. Most readers would feel a pull of particular emotions at the moment of reading this. By accomplishing “the power of forming great conceptions,” Lewis took advantage of short phrases (e.g. “the door was open”). This would lead the audience to pay more attention to this phrase, making it a more powerful starting phrase. It also causes the audience to think beyond their usual mental state. They would think more critically, asking questions like “what was the door Ambrosio’s talking about?” and “Does it symbolize anything?” Eventually, the reader will come to the conclusion that this quote represents the start of Ambrosio’s decline into depravity. In addition, Lewis’ use of specific rhetorical devices (i.e. hyperbole) to help the audience empathize what Ambrosio was going through at the moment. Exaggeration was found particularly in “What I felt at that moment language is unable to describe!” This implies that Longinus’ guilt was so great that he couldn’t put it into words. Essentially, Ambrosio was trying to justify why he was in the midst of raping Antonia. Ambrosio’s eagerness to create excuses for his actions demonstrates that he didn’t have pure intentions, demonstrating his gradual decline into depravity. 

However, Longinus’ idea of the sublimity is incredibly vague. Several sections can intersect with each other, especially “certain figures of thought and speech” and “noble diction.”  Gothic authors used rhetorical devices to achieve sublimity and share intense emotions. However, these same literary strategies can also demonstrate the author's use of grandeur and elevated language (i.e. “noble diction”). A previously-mentioned example illustrates this conflict: “The Monk . . . witnessed without mercy the convulsive trembling of her limbs . . . when soul and body were on the point of separation” 4. This quote directly contrasts Longinus’ idea of “elevation,” where the author was supposed to inspire awe and admiration. Instead, Lewis inspires terror and foreshadowing–the opposite Longinus intended for. Longinus’ vague criteria also creates the consequence of various, distinct interpretations of what is considered sublimity. The quotes mentioned above create feelings of apprehension, fear, and foreshadowing among a specific group of readers. However, this isn’t to say that all readers will feel the same; the experience isn’t universal. 

Not only for the audience, Longinus’ idea of sublimity falls short in identifying the protagonist Ambrosio’s emotions at this moment. Lewis highlighted in terrifying detail the consequences of straying from a strict path. When Ambrosio sold his soul to the devil, officially relinquishing the life of purity and holiness he led. The devil said to Ambrosio the following: “You are mine, and heaven itself cannot rescue you from my power. . . you have given up your claim to mercy, and nothing can restore you the rights which you so foolishly resigned” 4. Lewis highlighted in terrifying detail the consequences of straying from a strict path. For this particular reader, this quote exemplifies “noble diction” as the devil used elaborate language to highlight Ambrosio’s inescapable fate. His fall to moral depravity was complete. While Longinus did acknowledge that rhetorical devices are a significant factor of sublimity, he failed to mention how the rhetorical devices would sway the audience. If used effectively, rhetorical devices can stir the emotions of an audience, solidifying the connection between reader and writer. In addition, Longinus’ argument of sublimity was incredibly loose in the first place, especially since the “quality of a certain feeling” could be defined differently from reader to reader. Readers may not feel the same emotions when reading different pieces of literature. 

In 1810, British writer Percy Bysshe Shelley published Zastrozzi, which follows Pietro Zastrozzi’s revenge plot against Verezzi in a story that combines revenge and romance. To get revenge for Verezzi’s father’s betrayal, Zastrozzi kidnaps Verezzi and creates a series of events that prompts Verezzi to commit suicide. Shelley’s Zastrozzi sublimity arises from “vehement passion”, “noble diction”, and “certain figures of thought and speech” along with the use of religious elements. In Chapter 2, Verezzi was being held captive by Zastrozzi’s henchmen Ugo and Bernardo. With a sudden burst of courage, Verezzi said, “I fear nothing . . . from your vain threats and empty denunciations of vengeance: justice, Heaven! Is on my side, and I must eventually triumph” 9. Many readers would think that this quote’s sublimity would arise from “vehement and inspired passion” and “elevation.” The “vehement and inspired passion” seemed to arise from Verezzi’s sudden burst of unexpected courage, making the audience feel as though Verezzi went through a spiritual metamorphosis. This quality likely came from Verezzi’s repetition of “I” (i.e. “I fear nothing . . . I must eventually triumph”). Verezzi presents himself as a character with resilience. In the 1700s, Heaven was also the manifestation of righteousness and justice. Therefore, by saying “Heaven! Is on my side,” Verezzi will always be victorious and resilient to whatever challenges come his way. Longinus defines “elevation” as a style of writing that is “beyond ordinary.” Shelley fulfills this condition by making the readers feel Verezzi’s powerful declaration. In a sense, they feel “uplifted” and in awe by Verezzi’s courageous declaration. This feeling was solidified when Verezzi said, “I fear nothing . . . from your vain threats and empty denunciations of vengeance.” This way, Verezzi exemplifies his perseverance and fearlessness after being imprisoned in a cave, becoming a character that the audience would admire. 

Shelley also incorporated aspects of romance in his novel, using rhetorical devices to fulfill the quality of “noble diction.” With Verezzi dying in Chapter 14, he whispered, “I am ever yours, I ever shall be yours” 9. Using short and repetitive phrases, Shelley moved the audience's hearts, helping them realize that Verezzi officially moved from loving Julia to Matilda. The shorter phrase “I am every yours” was similar to a heartbeat–the beginning of passionate flames of love. Next, the effect of adding one word (i.e. “shall”) promises that Verezzi will love Matilda for all eternity. In this sense, sublimity would arise from “noble diction” and “vehement passion” because Verezzi confirms his love for Matilda. To enhance Matilda’s and Verezzi’s romance, Shelley also describes Verezzi’s old love for Julia fading away in great detail: “. . . in an instant of oblivion, every oath of fidelity which he had sworn another, like a baseless cloud, dissolved away; a Lethean torpor crept over his senses” 9. By using rhetorical devices, Shelley created Longinus’ version of sublimity by fulfilling the condition “noble diction.” 

On the other hand, Longinus’ argument of sublimity was far from perfect. It heavily concentrated on the author’s spiritual transcendence. It didn’t include how the author uses language, or rhetorical devices, to move their audience’s emotions or challenge their usual perceptions. In this circumstance, Shelley used similes to highlight Verezzi’s fading love for his previous lover Julia. By saying “like a baseless cloud,” Shelley implies that Verezzi’s love for Julia wasn’t substantial in the first place. To a normal audience, they will know that a cloud already doesn’t have substance. By adding “baseless,” Shelley emphasizes that Verezzi’s love for Julia was shallow. “Lethean” achieves the same effect because it’s a mythological allusion to the River Lethe. According to Greco-Roman folklore, the river Lethe was notorious for causing forgetfulness of the past to whoever drinks its waters. “Torpor” refers to a physical and mental lethargy. This represents Verezzi’s gradual passing into the afterlife. This quote can also achieve Longinus’ idea of “elevation”. However, rather than inspiring awe and admiration, Shelley’s romantic aspects cause the reader to feel sadness. It also demonstrates that the tragic romance between Verezzi and Matilda ended before it could truly start. 

Compared to her husband Percy, Mary Shelley took a more unique approach for utilizing sublimity. In her novel Frankenstein, she displays nature as a means to uplift one’s feelings. Frankenstein follows the story of a mad scientist named Victor who created a monster called Frankenstein, making the reader question whether madness and sin lies within man or monster. In Chapter 3 of Frankenstein, Victor was talking to Walton about how his chemistry professor M. Waldman inspired him to find the secret of life. “So much has been done, exclaimed the soul of Frankenstein–more, far more, will I achieve; treading in the steps already marked, I will pioneer a new way, explore unknown powers, and unfold to the world the deepest mysteries of creation” 8. Victor refers to himself in the third person to represent his sense of fatalism. Based on Longinus’ idea of sublimity, this is indeed a “strong” and “emotional” statement, inspiring awe and inspiration within the audience. In addition, the glorious, assertive quality of this statement foreshadows the fact that Victor won’t be stopped by any consideration of the consequences in his pursuit of knowledge. Finally, this declaration furthers the parallel between Walton’s spatial explorations and Frankenstein’s forays into unknown knowledge, as both men seek to “pioneer a new way” and make progress beyond established limits. In Chapter 10, Victor was feeling miserable after Justine’s execution and ventured toward the Mount of Montanvert. When he reached the top, Victor proclaimed, “Why does man boast sensibilities superior to those apparent in the brute . . . If our impulses were confined to hunger, thirst, and desire, we might nearly be free; but now we are moved by every wind that blows and a chance word or scene that that word may convey to us” 8. Essentially, Victor says that if humans are only driven by their basic urges (e.g. hunger), then they would likely have attained greater freedom. On the other hand, the reality is that humans are influenced by other various factors aside from their instincts, making them act more impulsively and without freedom. 

Victor’s proclamation follows Longinus’ criteria of sublimity: “noble diction, vehement and inspired passion, and elevation.” In this case, elevation could be related to the state of Victor’s emotions. Prior to the climb,Victor was feeling miserable due to Justine’s execution. However, after reaching the summit, Victor seemed more relieved and even started philosophizing about humanity. This represented the “elevation” of Victor’s mind, moving through different stages of awe to view the world in a different way that enriches the human experience7. This is the essence of sublimity: starting from a low point to reaching the peak of one’s emotions. Similar to Lewis’ The Monk, Frankenstein also highlighted the dire consequences when man goes against the laws of nature. While Mary Shelley completed several criterions for achieving Longinus’ idea of sublimity, she also changed the concept to make it her own. Rather than simply relying on Gothic architecture and terrifying tropes, she used nature to highlight the “elevation to transcendence” – a new type of sublimity. 

According to Longinus, Mary Shelley also established sublimity by using terror and the concept of the grotesque. In Shelley’s Frankenstein, Victor’s monster was the personification of the grotesque. When Victor brought his monster to life, “. . . his yellow skin scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath . . . his teeth of pearly whiteness; but these luxuriances only formed a more horrid contrast with his watery eyes, that seemed almost of the same colour as the dun white sockets in which they were set” 8. Similar to Matthew Lewis, Mary Shelley also uses an incredible amount of detail to highlight terror. This quality makes the audience feel terror more efficiently because they’re encountered by something they’ve never seen or know about. With the greater amount of detail, the easier it is for the reader to imagine the creature. Longinus’ idea of sublimity requires the use of language to achieve an effect of inspiring awe, admiration, and other noble feelings. However, he doesn’t mention other emotions, especially terror. Gothic authors, such as Mary Shelley, use the concept of sublimity and the grotesque to inspire fear within their audience. Rather than an “elevation” in emotions, the audience would likely feel a “de-elevation” of sorts. 
Longinus was concerned with how language establishes sublimity, defining it as “the echo of greatness of spirit” 7. In his On the Sublime, he highlighted several potential sources from which sublimity could arise: “noble diction”, “vehement and inspired passion”, and “elevation.” Longinus’ idea of sublimity affected several writers, and its impact continued into the 1700s–the peak of Gothic fiction. Its qualities usually consist of the following: ghosts, ruins, cataracts, etc. Typical works of Gothic literature were Matthew Lewis’ The Monk, Percy Shelley’s Zastrozzi, and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. All these works fulfilled Longinus’ idea of sublimity, such as completing the criteria of elevation of speech and masterful use of rhetorical devices. They also highlighted the shortcomings of Longinus’ argument. For instance, every reader can interpret different parts of an author’s work as sublimity. It implies that Longinus’ argument is vague and doesn’t set concrete rules of what counts as sublimity and what doesn’t. In addition, the Gothic works connected sublimity with the elements of terror, the grotesque, and religion. Lewis’ The Monk highlights the dire consequences of when one strays from a strict path; Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein associated nature with sublimity, capable of elevating one’s emotions to its peak. Gothic sublimity wasn’t only concerned with how language generated sublimity; it was also interested in how the writers use the sublimity to move their audiences’ emotions and elevate their typical thought processes. Rather than only inspiring awe and admiration, Gothic authors added deeper complexity to sublimity by also causing their audience to feel terror and fear the unknown. While Longinus laid the foundation for sublimity, Gothic fiction challenged and enriched the concept by blending it with the concepts of terror, romance, the grotesque, and psychological and existential fear.

Works Cited

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Lewis, M. G. (Matthew Gregory), 1775-1818. (1998). The Monk : A Romance. London: Printed for J. Bell. 

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Poetry Foundation. Longinus On the Sublime. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69397/from-on-the-sublime#:~:text=Written%20as%20an%20epistolary%20piece,human%20condition%20into%20greater%20mystery

Shelley, M. (1818). Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus. Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. 

Shelley, P. (1810). Zastrozzi: A Romance. G. Wilkie and J. Robinson.